somatotroph is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Last reviewed on 2026-02-28. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone, a peptide hormone produced by the hypothalamus. The molecule retains the 44-amino-acid sequence of human GHRH and carries a trans-3-hexenoyl modification at its N-terminus. This modification increases resistance to enzymatic degradation and extends the peptide's functional stability relative to native GHRH. The compound is supplied as a lyophilized powder for reconstitution and subcutaneous administration in clinical settings. Its development code was TH9507, and it belongs to the GHRH analog class. It is not a growth hormone product; instead, it acts upstream to stimulate endogenous growth hormone release.
Clinical interest in tesamorelin arose from the need to address visceral adiposity in people living with HIV. Antiretroviral therapy improved survival but was associated in some patients with central fat accumulation, altered lipid profiles, and metabolic complications. This condition, often called HIV-associated lipodystrophy, involves excess visceral adipose tissue that is difficult to manage through diet and exercise alone. Investigators evaluated tesamorelin because GHRH analogs can stimulate growth hormone secretion and influence fat distribution without direct liposuction or invasive procedures.
A Phase 3 program led to regulatory approval in the United States in 2010 for reduction of excess visceral abdominal fat in adults with HIV and lipodystrophy. Subsequent studies examined effects on liver fat, muscle area, and metabolic markers, with mixed findings for some endpoints. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes and effects on mortality remain uncertain because most trials were relatively short and focused on imaging-based fat measurements. Use in populations without HIV has been studied experimentally but is not part of the approved indication.
Tesamorelin binds to growth hormone-releasing hormone receptors on somatotroph cells in the anterior pituitary. Receptor activation increases intracellular cyclic AMP and promotes synthesis and secretion of growth hormone. Because the peptide mimics endogenous GHRH, it amplifies the normal pulsatile release of growth hormone rather than providing exogenous growth hormone directly. This upstream action distinguishes tesamorelin from recombinant growth hormone preparations and from growth hormone secretagogues that act at different receptors.
Stimulated growth hormone release leads to hepatic production of insulin-like growth factor 1, a key mediator of many growth hormone effects. In clinical studies, tesamorelin increased IGF-1 levels in a dose-dependent manner, although the response varies among individuals. The drug's effect on visceral fat is thought to involve growth hormone-mediated lipolysis and altered adipocyte metabolism. Muscle mass and lean body mass have also been assessed as secondary outcomes, but changes are generally smaller and less consistent than fat reductions.
Pharmacodynamic studies show that tesamorelin reduces visceral adipose tissue more than subcutaneous adipose tissue in the studied population. This selectivity may relate to differences in blood flow and hormone sensitivity between fat depots. Effects on glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity have been investigated, with some trials reporting modest changes and others showing stability. The precise relationship between growth hormone exposure, IGF-1 levels, and visceral fat loss remains an active area of analysis.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular weight | Approximately 5,136 Da | Based on the 44-amino-acid peptide backbone and N-terminal modification. |
| Appearance | White to off-white lyophilized powder | Usually supplied in single-use vials for reconstitution. |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water; slightly soluble in some organic solvents | Peptide nature supports aqueous reconstitution. |
| Typical storage | 2–8 °C, protected from light | Refrigeration reduces degradation; avoid freezing unless specified. |
| Common analytical method | Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography | Used for identity, purity, and quantification. |
| Synonyms | Tesamorelin, TH9507, GHRH(1-44) analog | Generic descriptors; avoid proprietary names. |
特沙莫瑞林是一种合成肽，其序列与人生长激素释放激素的 44 个氨基酸形式相关。它在 N 端带有反式-3-己烯酰基修饰，这一改动可减缓二肽基肽酶 IV 的降解。该化合物属于生长激素释放激素受体激动剂，可刺激垂体释放生长激素。研究文献通常将其归入合成肽类药物，而非小分子化合物。
监管记录显示，特沙莫瑞林于 2010 年在美国首次获得批准，用于人类免疫缺陷病毒感染相关的脂肪营养不良患者。批准依据来自降低内脏脂肪的临床试验，而非体重或瘦体重的普遍改善。后续出现了不同制剂版本，但其核心适应症保持一致。关于长期心血管结局和死亡率影响，现有证据仍不充分。
稳定性研究通常考察温度、光照、湿度和 pH 对肽链的影响。冻干粉在低温避光条件下较为稳定，复溶后则需控制保存时间并避免反复冻融。肽类可能发生氧化、脱酰胺、水解和聚集，这些变化会改变色谱纯度。强制降解实验用于识别主要降解途径并验证分析方法的专属性。
质量控制项目一般包括外观、身份、纯度、含量、有关物质、水分和微生物限度。身份确认可通过肽图谱、氨基酸分析和质谱完成，纯度则用面积归一化法计算。研究级材料与药品级材料的要求不同，前者常缺少完整药典验证。不同批次间杂质谱是否影响活性，仍是一个需要具体数据回答的问题。
The Springboks had fulfilled all of their touring commitments through the Fifties and Sixties but the oppressive, claustrophobic political pressures overwhelmed them during the Seventies. They have not been able to play in Britain, Ireland, France or Australia since 1974, and their only major tour abroad in the last ten years to New Zealand in 1981, was full of controversy, and mass demonstrations. There is no doubt that giant steps have been taken to make Rugby totally integrated in South Africa in recent years, and their supporters feel that no sooner have they fulfilled the conditions required of them by world opinion than the goalposts are moved. Their opponents, who are against having any sporting links with a country which practises apartheid, accept that sport in South Africa has become increasingly integrated but claim it is impossible to have normal sport in an abnormal society.
===== Vildagliptin ===== Vildagliptin (Galvus)(Figure 6) was first synthesized in May 1998 and was named after Edwin B. Villhauer. It was discovered when researchers at Novartis examined adamantyl derivatives that had proven to be very potent. The adamantyl group worked as a steric bulk and slowed intramolecular cyclization while increasing chemical stability. Furthermore, the primary metabolites were highly active. To avoid additional chiral center a hydroxylation at the adamantyl ring was carried out (Figure 6). The product, vildagliptin, was even more stable, undergoing intramolecular cyclization 30-times slower, and having high DPP-4 inhibitory activity and longer-lasting pharmacodynamic effect.
Viola canina – heath dog violet Viola hirta – hairy violet Viola labradorica – alpine violet Viola odorata – sweet violet Viola persicifolia – fen violet Viola riviniana – common dog violet Viola rostrata – long-spurred violet Viola sororia – common blue violet, hooded violet Section Xylinosium
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== Dengue epidemic ==== In 2024, the number of deaths from dengue in the country surged (6,041), an increase of 400% compared with 2023 (1,179), surpassing the deaths from COVID-19 (5,960) in that year (2024). Dengue deaths in 2024 exceeded the total for the previous eight years (4,992). The explosion in dengue cases led opposition deputies from the PL to nickname Lula "presidengue" and share false and exaggerated data about the number of deaths resulting from this small-scale epidemic.
=== Hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis === Inotersen received FDA approval for the treatment of hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis in October 2018. The application for inotersen was granted orphan drug designation. It was developed by Ionis Pharmaceuticals and licensed to Akcea Therapeutics. Patisiran (sold under Onpattro) was developed by Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, and also approved for use in the US and EU in 2018 with orphan drug designation. Its mechanism-of-action is the active substance of small interfering RNA (siRNA), which allows it to interfere with and block the production of transthyretin. As such, it was the first FDA-approved siRNA therapeutic.
=== Cinema and cultural workers === In July 2024, the Karnataka Legislative Assembly passed the Karnataka Cine and Cultural Activists (Welfare) Bill, providing for a welfare framework for workers in the cinema and cultural sector. The legislation included a proposed 2 percent cess on movie tickets and OTT subscriptions and provided for a welfare board.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, between 12,000 and 15,000 people are thought to have sickle cell disease with an estimated 250,000 carriers of the condition in England alone. As the number of carriers is only estimated, all newborn babies in the UK receive a routine blood test to screen for the condition. Due to many adults in high-risk groups not knowing if they are carriers, pregnant women and both partners in a couple are offered screening so they can get counselling if they have the sickle cell trait. In addition, blood donors from those in high-risk groups are also screened to confirm whether they are carriers and whether their blood filters properly. Donors who are found to be carriers are informed, and their blood, while often used for those of the same ethnic group, is not used for those with sickle cell disease who require a blood transfusion.
(1933), first African-American basketball player to be selected as All-American Alfred Skrobisch (1933), Olympic fencer Cliff Montgomery (1934), led the Columbia Lions football team to victory in the Rose Bowl John O'Brien (1938), basketball player for the Akron Wingfoots Ben Johnson (1938), sprinter who rivaled Jesse Owens Sid Luckman (1939), NFL Hall of Fame Chicago Bears quarterback Ken Germann (1943), football coach, athletic director of Columbia University, and former Southern Conference commissioner Paul Governali (1943), football player for the Boston Yanks and New York Giants Walt Budko (1948), basketball player for Baltimore Bullets and Philadelphia Warriors Bruce Gehrke (1948), football player for New York Giants Bill Swiacki (1948), player for New York Giants, member of the College Football Hall of Fame Lou Kusserow (1949), football player for Hamilton Tiger-Cats and New York Yanks John Azary (1951), basketball player, recipient of the Haggerty Award Jack Molinas (1953), NBA player for the Fort Wayne Pistons Jack Rohan (1953), head coach of the Columbia Lions men's basketball team 1961–1974, and 1990–1995 George Shaw (1953), Olympic triple jumper Richard Ballantine* (1967), cyclist and cycling advocate; son of Ian Ballantine '38 of Ballantine Books James Margolis (1958), Olympic fencer James Melcher (1961), Olympian fencer, president of Fencers Club and hedge fund manager Robert Contiguglia (1963), soccer player, former president of the United States Soccer Federation Peter Salzberg (1964), head coach of Vermont Catamounts men's basketball 1972–1981 Archie Roberts (1965), former football player for the Miami Dolphins and cardiac surgeon Jim McMillian (1968), NBA player for the Los Angeles Lakers, Buffalo Braves, New York Knicks and Portland Trail Blazers Dave Newmark (1968), NBA player for the Chicago Bulls; also played for Israeli team Hapoel Tel Aviv B.C. Marty Domres (1969), football player for San Diego Chargers and Baltimore Colts Heyward Dotson (1970), basketball player George Starke (1971), offensive lineman for the Washington Redskins Henry Bunis (1975), two-time All-American tennis player, runner-up in 1977 Chilean Open Rick Fagel (1975), professional tennis player Vitas Gerulaitis* (1975), champion tennis player Thomas Losonczy (1975), Olympic fencer, winner of the Congressional Gold Medal Alton Byrd (1979), basketball player Eric Fromm (1980), tennis player John Witkowski (1983), football player for Detroit Lions and Houston Oilers Gene Larkin (1984), member of the Minnesota Twins 1987 and 1991 World Series championship teams Amr Aly (1985), soccer player who won the Hermann Trophy as the top college player of the year 1984; member of the 1984 U.S. Olympic Soccer Team and indoor soccer team Los Angeles Lazers Stephen Trevor (1986), Olympic fencer Kyra Tirana Barry (1987), team leader for U.S. women's national wrestling team Caitlin Bilodeaux (1987), Olympic fencer Howard Endelman (1987), tennis player Phil Williamson (1987), tennis player for Antigua and Barbuda Bob Cottingham (1988), Olympic fencer Jon Normile (1989), Olympic fencer Frank Seminara (1989), Major League Baseball pitcher for the San Diego Padres and the New York Mets Tom Auth (1990), Olympic rower Christine Vardaros (1991), professional cyclist Ann Marsh (1994), Olympic fencer Ríkharður Daðason (1996), Icelandic soccer player Marcellus Wiley (1997), football player for the Buffalo Bills, San Diego Chargers and Dallas Cowboys Dan Kellner (1998), fencer Pellegrino Matarazzo (1999), head coach of VfB Stuttgart Matt Napoleon (1999), Olympic soccer goalkeeper Cristina Teuscher (2000), Olympic gold medalist swimmer Jedediah Dupree (2001), NCAA Champion fencer Veljko Urošević (2003), Serbian Olympic rower Fernando Perez (2004), outfielder for the Tampa Bay Rays Jeremiah Boswell (2005), professional basketball player for BC Sliven, KK Strumica, and KK Torus Delilah DiCrescenzo (2005), long-distance runner, inspiration and subject of the Grammy-nominated song Hey There Delilah Michael Quarshie (2005), Finnish American football player who played for the Oakland Raiders and Frankfurt Galaxy Lisa Nemec (2006), Croatian long-distance runner Miloš Tomić (2006), Serbian Olympic rower Erison Hurtault (2007), Dominican sprinter James Leighman Williams (2007), fencer who won silver in the 2008 Summer Olympics Emily Jacobson (2008), fencer İhsan Emre Vural (2008), Turkish rower for Galatasaray S.K. Sherif Farrag (2009), Egyptian-American Olympic fencer Nicholas la Cava (2009), Olympic rower Jeff Spear (2010), Olympic fencer Daria Schneider (2010), fencer Jeff Adams (2011), Houston Texans offensive tackle Nicole Ross (2011), Olympic fencer Isadora Cerullo (2013), Brazilian-American Olympic rugby player Katie Meili (2013), Olympic swimmer, Pan American Games and 2016 Summer Olympics gold medalist Josh Martin (2013), Kansas City Chiefs linebacker John Gregorek Jr. (2014), middle-distance runner David Najem (2014), American soccer player for New Mexico United and the Afghanistan national football team Nadia Eke (2015), Ghanaian triple jumper, African Championships gold medalist in 2016 Kristine Musademba (2015), figure skater Max Schnur (2015), tennis player playing on the ATP Challenger Tour Nzingha Prescod (2015), Olympic fencer Ramit Tandon (2015), professional squash player Jakub Buczek (2016), Canadian Olympic rower Sasha DiGiulian (2016), world champion climber Jacqueline Dubrovich (2016), Olympic fencer Maodo Lô (2016), German basketball player for Brose Bamberg Robb Paller (2016), American-Israeli Olympic baseball player Jeff Coby (2017), American basketball player for Xuventude Baloncesto Cameron Nizialek (2017), football player for Atlanta Falcons Akua Obeng-Akrofi (2018), Ghanaian sprinter Charlotte Buck (2018), Olympic rower Osama Khalifa (2018), #1 ranked college squash player in the U.S. for the 2016–17 season Camille Zimmerman (2018), American basketball player for Norrköping Dolphins Yasmeen Al-Dabbagh (2019), Saudi Arabian sprinter Jessica Antiles (2019), swimmer who won silver and bronze medals in the 2017 Maccabiah Games Dylan Castanheira (2019), soccer player, goalkeeper for Fort Lauderdale CF Sophie Whitehouse (2019), goalkeeper for Republic of Ireland women's national football team Mike Smith (2020), basketball player Anthony Jackie Tang (2020), Hong Kong tennis player John Tanguay (2020), rower who won a silver medal in the 2020 Summer Paralympics Dylan Geick* (2021), wrestler and internet personality Velavan Senthilkumar (2021), British Junior Open Squash champion and Asian Junior Squash champion Nastasya Generalova (2023), gymnast and model Olivia Giaccio (2024), Olympic freestyle skier Evita Griskenas (2024), rhythmic gymnast Camden Pulkinen (2024), figure skater Abbey Hsu (2024), basketball player
== Terminology == The vocal folds are commonly referred to as vocal cords, and less commonly as vocal flaps or vocal bands. The term vocal cords was coined by the French anatomist Antoine Ferrein in 1741. In his violin analogy of the human voice, he postulated that the moving air acted like a bow on cordes vocales. The alternative spelling in English is vocal chords, possibly due to the musical connotations or to confusion with the geometrical definition of the word chord. While both spellings have historical precedents, standard American spelling is cords. According to the Oxford English Corpus, a database of 21st-century texts that contains everything from academic journal articles to unedited writing and blog entries, contemporary writers opt for the nonstandard chords instead of cords 49% of the time. The cords spelling is also standard in the United Kingdom and Australia. In phonetics, vocal folds is preferred over vocal cords, on the grounds that it is more accurate and illustrative.
=== Eggsquis === Eggsquis is a midscale chain of restaurants in Quebec and Ontario. As of 2018, there are 39 outlets, which are primarily in Quebec. It specializes in egg dishes, from bacon and eggs to omelettes. The first Eggsquis restaurant was opened by Elias Stergiou in Sherbrooke, in 1995. In 2010, the owners of the restaurant chain Chez Cora took Eggsquis to court, claiming that some of the dishes at its Mascouche location had been copied from Cora's, including the names of the dishes.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic peptide analog of human growth hormone-releasing hormone. It is used clinically to reduce excess visceral abdominal fat in adults with HIV-associated lipodystrophy. It works by stimulating pituitary growth hormone release.
Pivotal trials enrolled adults with HIV and excess visceral abdominal fat, often in the context of antiretroviral therapy. Participants were assessed mainly by computed tomography for visceral adipose tissue. The approved indication remains specific to that population.
Long-term effects on cardiovascular events, mortality, and sustained fat distribution are not well established. Most trials measured changes over months rather than years. Open questions also include whether benefits persist after treatment stops.
It targets the growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor on pituitary somatotroph cells. Binding stimulates cyclic AMP signaling and growth hormone secretion. This is the same receptor used by endogenous GHRH.